Marinetti and Futurism

Filippo Tommaso Marinetti was an Italian writer, poet, artist, and founder of the Futurist movement. Marinetti wished to do away with art that had anything to do with the past and history but immersed itself in present day progression. In his widely known work Futurist Manifesto he declared that “Art…can be nothing but violence, cruelty, and injustice,” violence was an integral part of this movement. “no masterpiece is without the stamp of aggressiveness” (Crouch). There was a direct and deep influence from the Symbolism movement and the idea of synesthesia. This is when visual and verbal tactics are integrated to portray sounds that explode of the page. In his Mots en Liberte 1919, Marinetti exemplifies this with esoteric symbols, abrupt strokes trying to echo the violence of war with form. He wanted to show the new fast pace, modern world with all its metal and immediacy (Drucker/McVarish).

This radical aesthetic based on danger and speed of new technology and machinery turned the industrialized city into a place where artist used imagery to observe his stance on the new culture. Artists welcomed this rebellion, wanting to reject of all previous artistic values in poetry, art, and design in lieu of modern forms and a “utopian mechanized city” (Crouch). The new age was all machine-made or like so this sometimes became anti-humanistic. A Great example of this is Fortunato Depero’s Depero Futurista, this is a great example of Futurist Advertising. The cover shows the futuristic typography ideals, void of many ornamentation or motifs and we see the violent and mechanical importance in the bolted seam and the layouts of text on the pages inside the book. Depero’s innovation was not confined to the bolted cover, the inside text features a cornucopia of typographic inventions (including the use of different typefaces) formed into various shapes, the use of different papers and colors, and several other devices or methods. The form of the text is dynamic and portrays what the text is actually saying.

Another major product from Futurism was in music. Opera used to be the main music in Italy but with Futurism cam a whole new style which rejected traditional Italian symphony and introduced experimental music inspired by machinery and the new technology of the industrial age which influenced many twentieth century composers. Luigi Russolo’s invention of the Intonarumori was a beginning of a new sound.  This was an instrument he created which generated acoustic noise that allowed the performer or composer to make and control the movements of pitch of many different types of noises. Theses noises mimicked or included machines in the industry and is said to have began electronic music.

Futurist Painting took a completely different turn then other eras before and has influence on Cubism, Expressionism, etc. Before the gesture painters produced on canvas were fixed moments in universal dynamism and futurism painting stated that now the reproduction on canvas will but the dynamic sensation itself. To them it conveyed that fast movement that is machine and ultimately human since we mimic our culture-all things move, run, and are rapidly changing. As Said in the Technical Manifesto of Futurist Painting “Thus a running horse has not four legs, but twenty, and their movements are triangular.” Painting took on a very mechanic form “ the suffering of a man is of the same interest to us as the suffering of an eclectic lamp, which, with spasmodic starts, shrieks out the most heartrending expressions of color.” (Technical Manifesto) A great example of this is Giacomo Balla’s Abstract Speed and Sound. Balla is depicting light and movement and also the speed of automobiles. The fast strokes show speed and call back to Marinetti’s text forms and how stroke and form jump of the page to create a loud environment visually.

Sculpture also transformed. Umberto Boccioni’s unique Forms of Continuity in Space demonstrates the relation between an object and its environment and his theory of dynamism in sculpture. It again is very industrial, cast in bronze and portrays fast pace forms.

Architecture was influence by futurism as well. Architect Antonio Sant’Elia showed his modernity ideas in his sketches of La Citta Nuova (The New City). Though the project was never built and he was killed in World War One, his idea influenced later artists and architects. He believed that the ornamented value of Futurist architecture depends on the original putting together of bare or violently colored materials. His design had bold groupings and created a heroic industrial expression, showing his vision for a mechanized city of the future designed around the life of the city and exemplified technology and utopian mechanics.

Futurism and Marinetti’s manifesto that spurred this movement was the celebration of the industrial machine age, glorifying and disguising war and violence as a mean to approach situations. Late these ideas of modern materials and expressing movement of dynamism of natural forms influence cubists and constructivists.

Peter Behrens, the Father of the Corporate Identity

Peter Behrens was originally a Jugendstil, or Art Nouveau graphic artist. Later however, he became more interested in abstract, geometric shapes expressing a modernist machine aesthetic.
In 1906 Peter Behrens became the chief architect in the German electric company AEG (Allgemeine Elektricitäts Gesellschaft). Soon after, he became the artistic director as well. He was suddenly in charge of designing everything from the buildings to the advertising posters to the products, including electric kettles. Being the main designer for the company allowed Behrens to a Corporate Identity through creating everything for the company as part of a set of standardized designs.

The first design Behrens made for the company was a new Logo in 1907. It was a hexagonal beehive looking shape; showing his inspiration from geometric shapes in nature. Later that year he designed Behrens Antiqua (a typeface for the company) and an advertizing Poster for AEG; it used symmetry and the golden section rectangle, as did many of his designs. In 1908 Behrens designed the model GB1 Fan, its form served to complement its function. In 1909 he designed a variety of Electric Kettles, some of which were octagonal, following the geometric theme he had established. Also that year he designed a Turbine Factory in Berlin, Germany for AEG, constructed out of steel, brick, and glass, it too was very simple and geometric.

Peter Behrens was a Pioneer in branding and marketing mass-market products. He designed a grand amount of new AEG products which were economical for the company to produce and affordable for the average person to purchase.
Peter Behrens designed everything to be unified in its functional simplistic geometric form to create the first corporate identity through design.

Dynamic Constructivism: An Incomplete Interpretation of Function

The socio-political climate in Europe following the Industrial Revolution was quite agitated. Still grappling with its new means, creative thinkers began channeling a new aesthetic language. A language informed by the new machine age and its capabilities for precision. They were determined to break with old traditional styles and embrace the current times. Modernism was to be free of all historical baggage and inhabit and inform the here and now. This was supported by the idea of design as an effective and essential means of social change and ignited much experimentation in the graphic arts and the art of architecture.
The international scope of Modernism encouraged a shared need to make sense of this uncharted and revolutionary time period. Constructivism in Russia abandoned the idea of art for art’s sake in favor of a certain functionalism that was informed by technological advances. It was an outgrowth of Futurism and paralleled the movement in its seemingly chaotic representation of the dynamism of modern times. It employed a “radical new aesthetic sensibility in all arts (Drucker/McVarish).” The efforts of the Constructivists muddied the division between fine art and the applied arts; a distinction bound to be breached by the introduction of the machine into the arts. The Constructivists felt an increased need for the development of a new universal language and structure that was applicable to modern times. Geometric shapes and forms seemed the obvious choice in a visual discussion of the machine age. The importance of function as an informant of an object’s appearance became a necessity. They saw themselves as both reflecting and instigating social change. Herein lies a slew of contradictions amongst the radical efforts of Constructivism.
Vladimir Tatlin’s Monument to the Third International epitomized these contradictions. The monument was overly ambitious both in its conceptual nature and its feasibility. It was to be constructed out of what Tatlin referred to as the “materials of Modern Classicism,” iron and glass, and erected at a scale that would trump the Eiffel Tower (Crouch). The tower’s main structure was a double helix that encased three suspended geometric forms. At the bottom was a cuboid form that would rotate yearly. It was to accommodate “conferences of the International, international congresses and other large official assemblies (Crouch).” The middle tier was a pyramidical structure that was purposed as center for administrative offices. This structure was to revolve monthly. The top structure, a cylindrical form, was to revolve daily. It was designated as a hub for mass media for the international proletariat. It was to be equipped with all the latest technologies including a projector that would “write letters in the sky (Punin in Crouch).” Tatlin saw the monument as countering the individual expressionism that polluted previous designs, however, he failed to realize that his tower was just that. It was a representation of his personal interpretation of Constructivism’s idealized utilitarian intentions. The bold symbolism of the structure overwhelmed its functional objective. The tower never made it to the production stage but had a profound effect on the people no less. It became an icon of modernity and the “technological utopian future to which the Constructivists aspired (Crouch).” The powerfully expressive form of Tatlin’s Tower was, however, realized in the more tangible print media.
During this time there was an interesting interaction between graphic design and architecture in reaching a contemporary spatial understanding. This again manifested itself in abstract geometric shapes as signifiers of a modern aesthetic sensibility. Graphic design went beyond mere representation of the current industrial climate in that its formal aesthetic was dictated by the confines of the machine that produced it while maintaining an expressive imagination. It was a graphic language that made sense. El Lissitzky’s poster Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge effectively communicates, through the use of two flat geometric shapes, the conflict between the youthful fervor of Communism and the conservative aristocracy. This poster exemplified Lissitzky’s belief in the power that a new graphic language had in reimagining society.
Architect Nikolai Ladovsky developed a new school of thought based on rationalism, similar to functionalism in its practical notions, but with more emphasis placed on the human perception of space and shape, something that Constructivists ignored. He supported the idea of a universal inherent language, but not one that was necessarily dictated by the machine. He recognized the importance of the architect’s vision as superior to the technical details provided by the engineer. He states that “architecture enables us to read the fabric of space correctly.” The architect, as the designer, is the interpreter of space to the public; this interpretation based on factors that transcend a strict view of function.
With the rest of world’s focus now directed towards WWII, the neutral Netherlands were able to further explore the ideas investigated by the Futurists and Constructivists. Through the Destijl movement they were able to better make sense of and realize these ideas. The Schroder House, designed by Gerrit Reitveld, employs the architectural principles of the Destijl movement. It captures and accommodates for the vitality of modern life in its convertible spaces defined by interlocking and intersecting planes providing for new possibilities and spatial experiences. Its sophisticated and anonymous exterior form continues along the path towards the grander universal scheme.

Campbell’s Identity

The onset of industrial capitalism created an increased demand for advertising. Industry was not limited to small towns and local markets as had previously been the case. Technological advances in both the production and transportation industries caused the pace of life pick up. Products were being mass-produced and mass distributed. Previously, if you wanted to make soup, you went to the market bought the meat and vegetables, went home and cooked up a pot from scratch. If you needed flour, you went to the market and bought a burlap sack filled with flour. Hundreds of different brands now stocked the shelves of supermarkets. Consumers were confronted with a startling number of choices, and it became the responsibility of the companies to inform them of the right choice: they had to convince the consumer to buy their product. This required the product to stand out on the crowded supermarket shelves. With so many homogeneous products, the contents alone could not accomplish this. The newly fast-paced modern society relied heavily on the “power of the glance” (Beegan). It became essential that an idea be communicated quickly and effectively to the consumer; what George Simmel refers to as “the shop window quality of things” (Beegan). Advances in image reproduction facilitated this. Print media became a new way of seeing the product, and another way for the product to reach the consumer. Through advertising, the actual experience of the product was connected to a virtual representation of the product (Drucker/McVarish, 155). Graphic design’s power to establish a unique identity for companies had a conditioning effect on the consumers who were bombarded with packaging design and the print media. Images permeated society. They were used in the promotion of a brand’s goods and services as well as lifestyles and values.
The original Campbell’s soup logo was conceived in 1898 and has remained relatively unchanged. Its conception accompanied a growing trend of the “aestheticization of the commodified city (Beegan).” Herberton Williams, a Campbell’s executive, suggested the company adopt its red and white color scheme after being taken by the striking colors of the Cornell University football team. The label incorporates a hand-lettering, suggestive of the homemade. The golden medallion was added to the label after the 1900 l’Exposition Universelle in Paris where Campbell’s chefs were awarded a gold medal for excellence. Consumers could form a perceived connection between the red and white label and humanistic writing and the soup their mothers had made them when they were young. Campbell’s had established not just a recognizable identity, but developed strong brand loyalty.
By the 1960s, Campbell’s soup was more than just a well-established brand. The company had become an icon of mass production and the industrial revolution. When looking for a new direction to take what he felt was a dead-end career as a graphic artist, Andy Warhol happened upon the iconic Campbell’s soup can. The casual suggestion by his friend Muriel Latow to use it in his art became a pivotal point in his career. Warhol wanted to be famous. He wanted to make money. On July 9th 1962, Warhol debuted thirty-two canvases featuring the thirty-two varieties of Campbell’s soup at the Ferus Gallery in Los Angeles. Art critics were less than impressed, but the series caused a stir nonetheless. The Campbell’s soup can series was a way for him to paint pictures of money, of things that people saw everyday, a theme that reigned over the rest of Warhol’s artistic career (Sanders/Burns). Warhol promoted the idea of art as a product, something to be mass-produced and consumed. He took something as commonplace as a can of soup and made it deeply personal. Warhol’s Campbell’s Soup Series confirmed the graphic significance of the brand’s identity making it virtually impossible for the company to change its appearance without losing its identity. The Campbell’s soup can has become the epitome of brand recognition. Warhol underscored the iconic status of the brand. Today Campbell’s has grown to an international power. It remains the prominent figure in the prepared foods industry as well as one of the leading advertisers in the United States. This confirms that the soup is more that just “M’m! M’m! Good!” it sells. This attraction is ultimately an emotional thing. The red and white label is a visual signifier of comfort and childhood. It tells a story about America’s history: marketing, advertising, and mass production and distribution over the last century.

Andy Warhol's graphic representation of the iconic Campbell's Soup Can

the evolving book

The contents and visuals within books reflect their respective time periods and provide portals through which ideas and visual language can be disseminated and preserved.

A Gothic script of the late thirteenth century shows the conventions, along with reactionary changes, in the book form at the time. The sampled page features a double columned composition that facilitated reading by shortening the horizontal length of the text. In addition to this established tool in book design, the script used a modified gothic book hand that was “more open and legible than many earlier textura faces whose pointed shapes echoed architectural forms of the ear.” Throughout the development of book design, we can see a general momentum toward reader friendly changes. This manuscript, or document written by hand, was most likely a book of considerable size. Because hand-made, books were made in small quantities and were special artifacts meant to be read in groups rather than in private. The book features a deep margin on the bottom of the page to allow readers to hold it without smearing the text.

Gutenberg Bible

The Gutenberg Bible is a later iteration of book design that, for the first time, utilized the movable type method created by Johannes Gutenberg in 1455. Formally, the Gutenberg Bible, like the previous example, features a double-column format and emphasis on the initial letter of sentences, each allowing the reader to find his their way around the book easily. But in a more historically significant aspect, by removing the human hand, this new method created a faster production method and revolutionized print and had an enormous on social as well as design history. Rather than the handfuls of copies made as manuscripts, movable press allowed for the production of 180 copies, a momentous development for the book. With the movable press and increasing availability of literature, literacy rates rose and resulted in political disputes over control of information relayed to the public. The Gutenberg Bible marks a pivotal point in the history of books that separates the manuscripted past from the mechanized future and present.

Although Gutenberg’s movable type and printing press suggested an industrialized and machine dominated future for the book, Erhard Ratdolt’s Euclid in 1482 proves otherwise. Euclid portrays a combination of the advantageous use of the printing press and decorative elements that hang onto the past of book design. The margins utilize relief printing to embed the page with elaborate designs and geometric diagrams provide visual examples of the didactic text. In this example, we can see Jan Tchichold’s Van de Graaf canon which dictates where the main text should be placed in relation to the page to best direct the human eye.

Canterbury Tales

The Canterbury Tales, reprinted by William Morris in 1896, further counteracts the mechanizing potential of industrialism. Morris, a major figure in the arts and crafts movement, established the Kelmscott Press and strove to reduce the dehumanizing effects of industrialism and its effect on cheapening, in cost and quality, the production of print. Morris commissioned skilled artisans to assemble the composition and decorative elements of the book, ensuring that the methodology and materials were of high quality. He studied medieval manuscripts of the 1850s to create a version of the Canterbury Tales in which all aspects, including the use of a typeface in the name of its author, Geoffrey Chaucer, paper quality, and meticulously designed illustrations were carefully considered and utilized.

Despite movements against fully industrializing the book, the typical novel printed in the late nineteenth century is stripped of many elements that defined the books of the past. With increasing literacy rates and the ubiquity of books came easily transportable and dispensable versions of the book. The chunky, overly ornamented books of the 14^th and 15^th centuries are replaced with medium sized, handheld, portable novels for the individual. Text dominates the pages within these books. As books become published and printed in millions of copies, the time, page space and money required of decorative elements on the page eliminate the possibility of such additions. Book design now functions merely to facilitate the speedy intake of textual information, eliminating all other factors that detract from it.

Kindle

Amazon’s Kindle, released in 2007, further redefines the format of books. The Kindle is an electronic device on which books can be downloaded and read. The image of the page is preserved in the device, retaining a familiarity of the book format that consumers will most likely hold onto. The device eliminates the presence of print, and could produce positive environmental outcomes in lowering paper production. The only materials required of this product are those of the machine, which, once purchased, will no longer require other physical materials. From a sustainability viewpoint, the kindle can be viewed as the next move in book design to react to contemporary issues, however, readers cling to the familiarity of past designs. Readers demand the pleasure of flipping page to page, having physical indicators of how much they have read, the ability to dog-ear and mark on the page, and the overall tactile quality of books. Some of these issues have been addressed by the newly released iPad, which features a digital visual of flipping pages, initiated by a light flick of a finger on the screen. Each change in book design reflects the aesthetic and social environments of the time, and whether the contemporary changes in book design can attract readers to adopt a new technology – and modify the future of book design like the previous examples had in the past – will only be determined with time.

Bibliography:
Drucker, Johanna & Emily McVarish. Graphic Design History: A Critical Guide. New Jersey: Person Prentice Hall, 2009. p. 56, 69, 79, 166

The Crystal Palace Building Methods: Past, Present, and Future

The Crystal Palace designed by Joseph Paxton in the mid 19^th century was built with prefabricated parts. This building method was revolutionary for its time, and is seen as a symbol for the beginning of Modernism. Prefabrication began with the Iron Bridge, a symbol of the Industrial Revolution, and today, in the 21^st century it is still being implemented, while future architectural plans take it to whole new levels.

The Iron Bridge was made out of cast iron in 1779 and was the first of its kind. No one had, had any experience with such large-scale ironwork so Abraham Darby, the ironmaster commissioned to build the bridge, chose carpentry as the base of the construction mode. This meant that every part of the frame was cast separately and in the end there were more than 800 different castings of parts. A single arch spanned just over 100 ft and the bridge had five, the castings however, took only three months, and this “fascinated contemporaries” because of the swiftness and great usability of iron, which pointed to the future as a building material not just for bridges, but for buildings too (Briggs 7). The Viscount of Torrington said, “It must be the admiration as it is one of the wonders of the world” not just because of its innovative construction, but because it was also beautiful (Briggs 8). It ended up being used in poems, tankards, tokens, and “even on the ash-holes of kitchen grates”, iron was everywhere; including the churchyard which had tombstones made out of iron instead of stone (Briggs 7). This separate casting and great excitement over iron would lead to much larger and grander buildings later on.

Joseph Paxton began as a gardener for the Duke of Devonshire in 1826, and soon became head gardener at Chatsworth House, a large country house known for its botanical gardens. Paxton designed the gardens and fountains and the precursors to greenhouses at Chatsworth, including the Victoria Regia built in 1850. The Victoria Regia is (mostly) a glass and iron structure designed after the structure of the Amazonian giant water lily it houses. The lily is capable of holding up to five men of average weight when full-grown, making the ‘greenhouse’ by default durable too. It had “a ridge and furrow roof… of wood…and a gutter that could be trussed on its underside by wrought iron bars to give more strength for larger spans” (Chadwick 102). Like the Iron Bridge, the Victoria Regia used iron to create strength in the main structure. Now however, glass became a factor along with underground iron pipes because they were needed to keep the giant water lily alive with greater heat, after all, the Victoria Regia was made to house the plant and to allow it to keep growing. Not only did Paxton have the parts of the house pre-made then assembled on site, just like the Iron Bridge, but it was also a forerunner of the modern greenhouse because of the right angles he used to keep both the morning and afternoon sun in all the time. These glass and iron prefabricated structural techniques would lead to the Crystal Palace one year later.

It was 1851 and Queen Victoria with her prince consort Albert of Great Britain decided to stage an exhibition, the Great Exhibition, where art and designs of the world would be displayed for everyone to see. The only problem was the structure in which these objects would be housed in. A number of architects, engineers, and designers sent in over 245 plans but it was Paxton’s improvement and enlargement of the Victoria Regia plans that won out over everyone else’s designs. It was going to be a massive structure that covered a space of more than twenty-one acres with cast iron columns that had proven to be exceptionally sturdy which allowed for large, open windows which would make the building feel light and airy, a perfect stage for the display of power through objects of manufacture. The London Illustrated News said, “One great feature in its erection is, that not a vestige of stone, brick or mortar is necessary.” Making the construction affordable with not just money but time too. “All the roofing and upright sashes would be made by machinery, and fitted together and glazed with great rapidity…” plus after the Exhibition, “the materials might be sold far more advantageously than a structure filled in with bricks and mortar…” (Chadwick 108). The Crystal Palace “was considered an interesting curiosity but inspired no great enthusiasm in the intelligentsia of the period” (Crouch 11). In fact there was downright discontent that first of all, Paxton was not even a “qualified” engineer or architect or designer and that the structure was too temporary and of substandard production and quality. There were disasters predicted: that the heat would be unimaginable in such a structure, causing burns, mathematicians said the Crystal Palace would “blow down in a strong gale, engineers that the galleries would crash to the ground” and others went as far as to say that so many foreigners in London would lead to famine, plague, and the collapse of morals! (Hobhouse 81). But none of the above happened because certain windows were covered with calico and canvas, sometimes wet so that the temperature on the inside would be much cooler than the outside. There were gales and rain but because of the successful gutters Paxton later patented, nothing happened to the Palace. The galleries remained whole and in addition to this, no trees had to be cut down. The Palace was built around its landscape, allowing for most natural elements to remain intact, which in turn allowed for the construction process to speed up as well. The total amount of construction time was nine months without “fearful amounts of expense” due to the “rapid advance made in [the] country in the last forty years both in scientific construction…[and] cheap manufacture” (Chadwick 109). The Crystal Palace was made possible by the technological innovation of the use of prefabricated parts system of the Iron Bridge, and the aesthetic design and experience of the Victoria Regia House.

The Sears Modern Homes were prefabricated houses that used mass production and new technology to sell as many products as possible. From 1908 to 1940, Sears, Roebuck, & Co. sold 70,000-75,000 Modern Homes to the public and they all “carried Sear’s famous money back guarantee” (Schiffer 2). Some of the materials mass-produced for the construction of the houses were “Balloon style” framing, or precut timber of 2×4s and 2×8s for framing. Drywall was another groundbreaking material that was “a good fit” for the Sears’ squarely designed homes. While asphalt shingles were cheap to manufacture and inexpensive to install. These quick and efficient supplies not only cut down the construction time by 40% but also because they were mass-produced, they were cheaper and thus more available to customers. Moreover everything from nails to the varnish and instruction manual were sent via railroad to the buyer making everything more convenient. “Sears was the complete mail order building supplier” offering catalogs for furnaces to fireplaces and barns to sixteen-room apartment buildings and all with the assurance that only the best materials would be used, if not there was always the money back guarantee (Schiffer 2). Personalization was the next step forward in the prefabrication game; this is the reason why Sears, while not the first to come up with the idea of selling prefab houses, was the most successful. They had designers come up with over 447 different designs ranging from Honor Built, or the most expensive with finest quality; the Standard Built, or the middle-class choice; and the Simplex Sectional, or the simplest design that did not contain an inside bathroom. From here the buyer could do anything from inverting floor plans to changing wood types. Sears Modern Homes “stayed abreast of any technology that [eased] the lives of homebuyers” (“Sears Archives”) by making it possible for consumers to have central heating, indoor plumbing, and electricity if it was asked for. The construction of the house would only take a few days and Sears advertised them as entirely ready for use thanks to the instruction manuals and the easy prefabricated and precut materials.

Improved housing at a lesser cost was not a novel idea, but it had not been implemented for quite some time until 1996 at a housing fair in Sweden where IKEA and Skanska united and created BoKlok or “live smart” and it became the first construction company in Sweden to create modern, low-cost, easy-to-make living spaces available to the largest number of people possible. BoKlok houses and apartments are similar in concept to the Sears homes, but they also have several differences. The Sears home’s main market was in the United States, whereas Boklok is available only in Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, and Great Britain. These are apartments and houses designed to be efficient and economic through prefabricated construction, which allows more apartments to be built at a lower price thus reducing the cost to the consumer or as BoKlok states, they are “far more efficiently constructed in quality-controlled conditions than would be possible through site-based construction” (“BoKlok”). What’s more, they try to be environmentally friendly by using wood to construct because it is renewable, and implementing smart designs that lead to low energy expenditure, while the design of the house contains a living room with large windows that “make the whole home connect to the outside environment” (“BoKlok”). Additionally, while the Sears marketing strategy was to have people feel proud of “their” home; BoKlok makes an effort to market themselves as advocates of “community” by giving each courtyard an apple tree and a bench in the communal garden to meet and greet neighbors and stay for a good chat.

The design and construction method of the Crystal Palace led to many buildings, most prominently skyscrapers. There is always a desire for innovative ideas however and Italian architect David Fisher has stepped up and announced Dynamic Architecture: a building in motion whose floors rotate at different speeds, thus, as Dr. Fisher claims, “introducing a fourth dimension to architecture: Time.” It was named the 16^th Best Invention of 2008 in TIME magazine though it has not been built. It is planned to have 80 floors containing offices, a hotel, and apartments and it will cost $700 million to construct while the apartments will sell for $3.7 to $36 million. It is going to use preassembled parts that will decrease construction time, save money, be environmentally friendly, and increase the safety of the workers because they will be at the construction site less time. The way that the building will be constructed is from the top down. A main concrete column will be built first then modules of the floors filled with the necessary systems and items will be hooked then lifted to the top by a crane thus cutting down on the cost of workers and labor and liabilities (“Dynamic Architecture”). The plan to use preassembled parts will allow “90 people to put up in less than two years what it would require more than 20 times as many workers, and nearly twice as much time, using traditional construction methods” this means that each story could be built in seven days (Rocca). The hollow core of the building is what is going to help get the waste down and clean water up to the tenants using technology used in airplanes to refuel while in mid-flight. As for electricity, horizontal wind turbines will support the movement of the floors aided by solar panels, this will generate more electricity than is needed, thus leaving the rest to the tenants to use. The horizontal wind turbines however do not exist because engineering research for something so limited is too expensive and the construction sites and times for the tower have been put off for a long time. Nevertheless, “the structural engineer on the NY World Trade Towers and Shanghai World Financial Center, Leslie Robertson, told reporters…that Fisher’s Dynamic Tower is absolutely buildable… that you can build anything” (Karabell). David Fisher ran a family company that specialized in masonry and prefabricated construction materials like the ones seen in Sears Modern Homes. Perhaps it was working here that gave him the idea of the Dynamic Architecture. In the end, whether it gets built or not, the Dynamic Tower is a plan to use prefabricated and preassembled modules and fixtures in a different way, a continuation of what happened in 1779 with the cast iron Iron Bridge that led to the use of iron in the Victoria Regia House that led to the design of the Crystal Palace that led to the assemblage of the Sears Modern Homes that led to the newer BoKlok homes that led to Dynamic Architecture. Nobody knew if these ideas would work or not, but by using modern technologies and improving upon them with not only other newer technologies, but new ideas and concepts, they did. Thus, in the future, architecture will keep improving and generating better, newer, and constantly more modern forms.

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“Prefabrication.” Dynamic Architecture. Web. 20 Feb 2010. <http://www.dynamicarchitecture.net/home.html>.

“The BoKlok History: Where BoKlok Came From.” BoKlok. Web. 20 Feb 2010. <http://www.boklok.com/UK/>.

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Briggs, Asa. Iron Bridge to Crystal Palace: Impact and Images of the Industrial Revolution. London, Great Britain: Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1979. 7-9. Print.

Chadwick, George F. The Works of Sir Joseph Paxton: 1803-1865. London, Great Britain: Architectural Press, 1961. 101-111. Print.

Crouch, Christopher. Modernism in Art, Design and Architecture. Macmillan, 1999: 1-45. Print

Hobhouse, Hermione. The Crystal Palace and the Great Exhibition. New York, New York: The Athlone Press, 2002. 81-82. Print.

Karabell, Shellie. “Dynamic Architecture, Rotating Tower: Yes, But Will It Fly?.” Knowledge Instead. 2009. Web. 20 Feb 2010. <http://knowledge.insead.edu/contents/Dynamicarchitecturerotatingtoweryesbutwillitfly090715.cfm?vid=2>.

Lienhard, John H. “No. 1158: The Crystal Palace.” Engines of Our Ingenuity. 1997. Web. 20 Feb 2010. <http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1158.htm>.

Luebkeman, Chris. “The Crystal Palace of Hyde Park.” Resources: Case Studies-Simple Beams. 1995. Web. 20 Feb 2010. <http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~struct/resources/case_studies/case_studies_simplebeams/paxton_palace/paxton_palace.html>.

Rocca, Francis X. “Believe Him or Not, He Puts a Fresh Spin on Architecture.” The Wall Street Journal: Digital Network. 2009. Web. 20 Feb 2010. <http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123432213609971519.html>.

Roy, Nishi. “BoKlok:Prefabricated Homes From IKEA.” Ecofriend. 14-Mar-2008. Web. 20 Feb 2010. <http://www.ecofriend.org/entry/boklok-prefabricated-homes-from-ikea/>.

Schiffer, Design Book. Homes in a Box: Modern Homes From Sears Roebuck. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 1998. 1-5; 66-109. Print.

Stephenson, Mike. “The Victoria Regia: Historical Reminiscences.” Water Gardeners International. Web. 20 Feb 2010. <http://www.victoria-adventure.org/victoria/mike/reminiscences.html>.

Wikipedia contributors. “Ironbridge.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 20 Feb. 2010. Web. 27 Feb. 2010.

Utilitarian Ornamentation

By the turn of the 19^th century, Art Nouveau movement had primarily spread across Europe and the States. The movement influenced art, architecture, and applied art. In French, Art Nouveau means “new art.” The term eventually applied to any form that favored a new sensibility in rejection of historical reference. The style is characterized by asymmetrical and fluid lines, circular and organic motifs, and female figures with long, undulating hair. Art Nouveau briefly essentialized the dynamic and Avant-Garde in the fine and applied arts. Art Nouveau sort of developed from the Arts and Crafts Movement and was also influenced by Japanese art, Rococo, and Celtic art.

In 1899, Art Nouveau architect Hector Guimard designed the Porte Dauphine metro station entrance. His design is the epitome of integrating decorative elements into the utilitarian structure. Guimard’s metro entrances shaped the landscape of Paris. The entrance is in between a pavilion and a pagoda. Its use of glass aesthetically adopts an organic and semicircular form as it functionally invites natural light into the underground space. Technological advances permitted the construction of cast iron. New materials and new processes allowed objects that were previously considered utilitarian, with the addition of ornament, to become “works of art.” Guimard took advantage of these technological improvements to mold materials into free-flowing forms. In using the motif of a tree as a structural support, Guimard is making a particular statement about the relationship of the natural world to the urban. It also shows the influence of nature on his conception. However, Guimard was criticzed for the “extravagance” of his metro design.

Another influential figure of the Art Nouveau style was Czechoslovakian artist Alphonse Mucha. He made many lithograph posters in the Art Nouveau style with soft colors, female figures, and semicircular forms. The typography of Mucha’s poster “Bieres de La Meuse” from 1897 is similar to the “metropolitan” sign on Paris metro entrance. They were both Art Nouveau typefaces. The Paris metro’s wallpaper also resembles the formal aspects of Mucha’s poster in terms of soft colors, (semi)circular forms in the female’s hair, and organic motifs in the nature imagery. Through sensual freedom, flowing spatial organization (a Japanese technique), soft curve, and streamlined forms, Mucha used “eroticism as a liberating force from the bonds of convention”(Crouch).

Hector Guimard’s visit to Hôtel Tassel in Brussels had a decisive influence on his design for the Porte Dauphine. Victor Horta’s Hotel Tassel built in 1894 has been said to be the first true Art Nouveau architecture for its revolutionary use of materials and decoration. Guimard adopted Horta’s use of glass roof that provides for a source of natural light source in the centre of the building. Horta’s close attention to every detail is evident in the door handles, woodwork, stained glass, mosaic floorings, stair railings, electric fittings, and even decorative wall paintings. But the most extraordinary features of all are the exposed interior metal structure and the free plan. Like Guimard’s use of iron molding, the curvilinear decoration of the metal column alone supports the ceiling and landings. While being utilized, the organic tendrils intertwine to form the balustrade. Similar motifs are repeated two dimensionally in the mosaic floor and the curvilinear patterns of the wall decorations. His inspiration of nature is apparent in the column, the wall imagery, and the flooring.

Although influenced by the Arts and Crafts movement, Art Nouveau differs by “[breaking] all precedents and expectations about the appearances of objects”(Crouch). This is due to the supreme individualism of the creator, in the quest for personal expression. For example, Antoni Gaudi exploited organic forms and created a new personalized formal vocabulary. Gaudi’s Casa Batlló built in 1877 was originally designed for a middle-class family. The entire architecture has a visceral, skeletal organic quality. With nature as his inspiration, the structure adopts this organic style characterized by sculptural plasticity. Like Guimard and Horta, Gaudi also manipulates lighting. The circular windows invite natural light into the blue and white ceramic-tiled stairwell. The curvilinear stonework in the floors conceals the original rectangular windows. Gaudi’s transformation of functional structures into ornamentation parallels him with Guimard, Horta, and other Art Nouveau figures.

The entrance of the Bilbao Bagatza metro station in Spain built in 1995 is a modern instance of a metro station very similar to the Porte Dauphine. They both integrate the use of glass to the structure. Norman Foster designed the glass structure of the Bilbao metro; which is called “fosteritos.” Like the Porte Dauphine, the glass brings natural light underground. Its steel structure takes on the semicircular motif that is prominent in the Art Nouveau style. The form is geometric but almost organic at the same time.

In conclusion, the wide variations of Art Nouveau style depended on the context and the materials that were employed. Ultimately, Art Nouveau was born out of the “desire to reject historicism and to abolish the distinction between the major and minor arts”(Lavallée). Art Nouveau was brought to an end by the start of World War I. Nonetheless, we still see influences that trace back to the Art Nouveau period in art, architecture, and applied art.

Works Cited:

Crouch, Christopher. Modernism in Art, Design and Architecture. Macmillan, 1999: 1-45.

Drucker, Johanna. Graphic Design History: A Critical Guide. 1. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2008. 157-59. Print.

Hopkins, Justine. “Art Nouveau.” The Oxford Companion to Western Art. Oxford Art Online. <http://www.oxfordartonline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t118/e118?q=art+nouveau&search=quick&pos=2&_start=1#firsthit >.

Lavallée, Michèle. “Art Nouveau.” Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. 15 Jul. 2008
<http://www.oxfordartonline.com/subscriber/article/grove/art/T004438?q=art+nouveau&search=quick&pos=1&_start=1#T004447 >.

more than a seat

In the moments before one sits down in a chair, there is always an understanding between the pair. Some chairs are known to offer of a service, while others-commit some to service. There are many things to a chair, in addition to a raised surface to sit upon.

Consider the chair named Willow. A beauty and elegance crafted by hand, solid ashwood & varnished black. It’s curved and gridded back resembled a willow tree, the symbol of Sauchiehall Street. On the south-end of street are the Willow Tea Rooms, were the Willow served as the seat of the Porter (who’s role is a servant or overseer, maître d’ and attendant). Right in-between two of the more popular tea rooms Willow was fit-thus room’s events were sure to stay split. From such central a position, the Porter provided excellent service; such as storing guest’s bulky-belongings in a storage space with-in the Willow (accessible by means of lifting the chair’s seat). However, it’s not just these things that make the Willow a legend, but also the style that the Glasgow’s envisioned. Their styles and look spread about, in all the many forms in which they worked-creating a visual continuity of sorts. Upon knowing this, one could say, the Willow’s just one bite in the Glasgow’s visual appetite. Thus, it’s now obvious to see the many things a chair can be, upon such a strong understanding of said chair’s surrounding.

The №14, a pleasantly-round chair, and a pioneer of its time. In 1859, Michael Thonet-an exceptional German-born cabinetmaker-finally succeeded in designing the first mass-manufactured and affordably-priced chair.  The process of producing & assembling №14 is genius; unskilled workers steam-bend wood into curved-iron molds to produce the chair’s components. These components, which are easy to assemble & dissemble, make transportation and mass production of №14 a simple task. Moreover, by 1930 some 50 million №14s had been sold, and millions more to date-the №14 is thought to have seated more people than any other chair in history.

Modern times have called more and more individuals to the office, the boardroom, desk, and the lab-places where the individual must sit and work for absurd amounts of time. Consequently, it wasn’t long before ergonomic solutions answered the many cries of back-pains caused by these sedentary working conditions; office chairs, lumbar supports, studies & workplace meetings on proper posture were some of these answers. However, of these answers-none would prove as affective as the Aeron Chair¹.

Designed by Don Chadwick & Bill Stumpf and produced by Herman Miller in 1994, the Aeron Chair is the ergonomic answer to aforementioned working place. The first & foremost revolutionary feat of the Aeron is ‘Pellicle’ mesh fiber which replaced the traditional chair’s upholstery; this semi-opaque mesh allows air to flow free-providing a cool seat. Although, there is some speculation to the chair’s ‘inherent comfyness’ (complaints about: circulation loss in the legs, too much pressure from the back & sides of the chair, and difficulties in operating the controls), most users (those who buy the correct size of the A, B, and C Aerons and conform to the healthy posture the chair promotes) find the chair to be very comfortable. For its break-thought in design, the Aeron has founds its place in the Museum of Modern Art-in addition to seating the ingenuities of the dot-com era.

Now before the next meeting of your bottom and its found seating, consider the understanding between you and the chair. Should it be just about durability, or maybe the pondering of a possible legacy?

The Willow Tea Rooms (official website). http://www.willowtearooms.co.uk/

Rawsthorn, Alice. “No. 14: The chair that has seated millions”. The New York Times. November 7,2008. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/10/arts/10iht-design10.1.17621906.html

Hall, Peter. “Aeron Chair - 1994″. Metropolismag.com. March 20,2006. http://www.metropolismag.com/story/20060320/aeron-chair-1994

The Art (and Architecture) of Storytelling

Throughout different cultures, spanning vast amounts of time, people have built elaborate buildings for multiple reasons, usually religious or political, and oftentimes both. Within these buildings there is an element of storytelling occurring, a close attention to detail, visible on or within the buildings. These depictions of stories show the care and thought put into the building and the significant impact the building has on the community in which it was built.

Antoni Gaudi’s Sagrada Familia church is located in the center of Barcelona and although construction began in 1882 it is still continuing today with an expected completion date of 2026. The Sagrada Familia is considered part of the Art Nouveau movement, when new technology allowed building elements to be taken to a new level. This allowed for the appearance of a weathering-away of brick and stone, causing the church to appear as though nature had shaped it over centuries. From a distance, the Sagrada Familia appears non-uniform, almost messy, similar to a drip sandcastle. Upon closer inspection, many magnificent, minute details become visible, including figures carved out of the stone and mosaic tiles set within the stone.

The Parthenon, built in Athens in 447 B.C., is a temple dedicated to the goddess Athena. It contains decorative sculptures and friezes considered to be part of the high points of Greek art. A narrative is told around the entire outside of the Parthenon depicting people honoring Athena. The sculptures on the two pediments are life-sized and tell the story of Athena’s birth and how Athena chose to be the protector of the city of Athens. Although the temple is geometric, the Greeks were inspired by nature when it came to construction. It was important to the Greeks that this temple was fit to honor the gods in every aspect, so it was built with delicate curves, to follow the natural curve of the earth. It was also built with the “golden ratio” in mind, as well as slightly curved columns that appear perfectly parallel from a distance.

The column of Trajan is located in the Forum of Trajan in Rome, in the Basilica Ulpia. Built in 113 A.D. for Emperor Trajan out of marble by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus, the column acted as a propaganda tool. Atop the column stands a bronze statue of the emperor and it depicts 150 scenes, 60 of which are of Trajan, cut into the column, spiraling from the top of the column to the bottom. Some of the scenes depict the emperor’s victories in a war against Dacia (now Romania), as well as illustrates Trajan’s work in the forum. Like the Sagrada Familia, attention was paid to carve ornate scenes and tell the emperor’s story around the entire column. Although the column is more political than religious, it continues to convey messages to the communities of Rome of the dedication of architects in the country’s past.

Stupas are monasteries built over the relics (bones) of the Buddha, usually out of sandstone. They have a dome-shaped roof, symbolizing a parasol, used only by the highest social ranks. The Great Stupa at Sanchi, located in India, was built around 250 B.C. Since stupas aren’t meant to be entered, stories of the Buddha’s life are carved into the building on the outside so visitors, no matter what language they spoke, could visually see the stories, understand the life of the Buddha, and become closer to him. Located on the East Gateway is the story of the Great Departure, when Siddhartha Gautama left his palace in search for the ultimate truth. Throughout the story he is depicted only as a parasol, located over a horse or as two footprints to indicate where he began his journey on foot. Buddhist art at this time was anthropomorphic because no human could convey the beauty of the Buddha once he has reached Enlightenment and artists at this time believed they could not do him justice to depict him in human form. Like the Parthenon, the stories of the Buddha flow continuously around the entire perimeter of the stupa.

Chartres Cathedral is considered the finest example of the French Gothic style or architecture. Reconstruction began on the church in 1195 and from a distance the church appeared to hover over waiving fields of wheat. Over the main entryways are carved scenes meant to remind churchgoers why they should continue to go to church. On the west façade is a depiction of the Last Judgment, showing sinners falling and being consumed by demons while those who are saved converse with angels. In two other entryways there are depictions of the Glorification of the Virgin and the Glorification of Christ. Although these sculptures are similar to the stories found on the Sagrada familia, they are contained and bordered, appearing only over the entryways, whereas the stories found on the Sagrada familia are more numerous and appear to have no rhyme or reason in their placement.

The Sistine Chapel, decorated in ornate detail, consecrated, and dedicated to the Virgin Mary, was built for Pope Sixtus IV by Giovannino de Dulci between 1475 and 1480. The chapel was built with the same dimensions as the Temple of Solomon, given in the Old Testament. Although the outside of the building is unadorned architecturally, the interior contains paintings and frescos that completely cover the walls and ceiling with biblical stories. Although the interior paintings where done by multiple artists, the ceiling, painted by Michelangelo, is one of the most well known pieces of artwork in Italy. Both the Sagrada Familia and Sistine Chapel were constructed in dedication to God and both retell important biblical stories. The Sistine Chapel’s extensive, time consuming art was instead applied to the interior of the building, instead of being carved out of it.

Although each of the aforementioned buildings are well known for carved narratives or extensive paintings, none compare to the elaborate, all-encompassing designs used to create the stories and religious scenes depicted on the Sagrada Familia. Gaudi believed when he began working on this church that it was “made by the people and is mirrored in them” and today it remains one of the central works of architecture in Barcelona, visited by millions each year.

Works Cited

Grout, James. “Trajan’s Column.” Encyclopaedia Romana. N.p., 27 Jan. 2010. Web.
23 Feb. 2010. <http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/imperialfora/trajan/column.html>.

Hayes, Holly. “Sistine Chapel.” Sacred Destinations. N.p., 20 Feb. 2010. Web. 23
Feb. 2010. <http://www.sacred-destinations.com/italy/rome-sistine-chapel>.

“Immediate Impact: Notre-Dame and Chartres.” Arts and Humanities Through the Eras. Ed. Edward I. Bleiberg, et al. Vol. 3:                         Medieval Europe 814-1450. Detroit: Gale, 2005. 39-41. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23 Feb. 2010.

Oliveras, Jordi. “Gaudí, Antoni.” Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. 23 Feb. 2010
<http://www.oxfordartonline.com/subscriber/article/grove/art/T030991>.

“Parthenon.” Ancient Greece and Rome: An Encyclopedia for Students. Ed. Carroll Moulton. Vol. 3. New York: Charles Scribner’s
Sons, 1998. 97-99. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23 Feb. 2010.

Sagrada Familia http://www.sagradafamilia.cat

“Stories in Stone: The Popular Appeal of Early Buddhist Art.” Indian Art. P.50-76.

“The Sistine Chapel.” Art and the Bible. N.p., 2010. Web. 23 Feb. 2010. <http://www.artbible.info/art/sistine-chapel.html>.

Uitti, Karl D. “France.” World Education Encyclopedia. Ed. Rebecca Marlow-Ferguson. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale, 2001. 449-
464. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 23 Feb. 2010.

Facebook: Connections, Layouts, and Advertisements

Facebook is a global social networking website with successful advertisements due to Internet-savvy users, an efficient layout, and non-traditional marketing methods.

In 2009 there were more than 300 million Facebook users and forty percent of these were 18-24 years olds. The significance of these numbers lies in the fact that these college age users are extremely familiar with the Internet and its social networking possibilities. What is most appealing about Facebook to these users is the “proximity-by-proxy thing”1, or the ability to connect with many people without much effort. This is crucial to the college student because there are many people that he or she would like to stay in contact with, like old high school friends in addition to new ones that can be made everyday on campus. It is also incredibly simple to connect with friends on Facebook because it offers links to the profiles of ‘People You May Know’ that are not the user’s friends (but some type of connection still exists) and a ‘Live Feed’ to stay informed on people the user already knows. For these internet-savvy users, the simplicity and quickness of these links and updates goes well with the worldwide-interconnected life they are used to. While browsing the web, a Facebook page can always be open in order to stay connected and informed with the user’s friends.

Advertisements on Facebook must fit this new way of connecting with the world. Old advertising is no longer an option.

“Once every hundred years media changes. The last hundred years have been defined by the mass media. They way to advertise was to get into the mass media and push out your content. That was the last hundred years. In the next hundred years information won’t be just pushed out to people, it will be shared among the millions of connections people have. Advertising will change. You will need to get into these connections…” 2-Mark Zuckerberg, CEO Facebook

Sharing through connections is made easy in Facebook because of the layout that has been implemented. There are two main pages a user can navigate through: ‘Home’ and ‘Profile’. Both are similar because they have three columns.

FIGURE 2

In the ‘Home’ page (Figure 2), the first column consists of vertically descending tabs that link to different options like ‘Applications’ or extra information on a page; ‘Friends’; ‘Photos’; ‘Events’; ‘Messages’; and the most used ‘Live Feed’ or a minute-by-minute account of what friends are doing as defined by their ‘Walls’ or other clicked material on Facebook. The second column is where the links will lead to, while the third column in vertically descending sections will show ‘Suggestions’ to ‘People You May Know’; ‘Sponsored’ ads that show what other user friends have clicked on, are fans of, or are using; ‘Events’; and ‘Connect With Friends’. These sections reinforce the idea of connections to current and future friends.

FIGURE 3

In the ‘Profile’ page (Figure 3), the first column in vertically descending sections will show a user’s picture, ‘Information’, ‘Friends’, and added ‘Applications’. The second column shows the user’s name and status along with recent activities the user has engaged in, for example, “John Smith commented on Jane Doe’s status”, and anything any other users have decided to post on the profile, this whole section is called ‘The Wall’. The third column shows three advertisements at a time. The simple, straightforward layouts of these pages make users feel free to express themselves because everything has its own section and no one feels overwhelmed with cluttered information. This layout also allows for repetition of information which is beneficial to advertisers because when they post their ads and a member becomes a fan of it, then it will show up not just in the ‘Profile’ page’s third column of the fan’s friends, but on the ‘Home’ page’s ‘Live Feed’ and third column’s section. Like Zuckerberg said,

“People influence people. Nothing influences people more than a recommendation from a trusted friend. A trusted referral influences people more than the best broadcast message. A trusted referral is the Holy Grail of advertising.”3

There are two types of advertisements that can be shown, the first type is a normal ad where if clicked, it will link to the businesses’ Facebook page or a website on the Internet. The second type of advertisement is the social ad. The social ad targets “precisely the audience [of choice]”4 which means that Facebook takes information that a user posts on ‘The Wall’ and sells it to advertisers who in turn use it to target their ads to the right people. Facebook gathers massive amounts of information from their users making it every advertiser’s dream to tap into this wealth of information for ultimate personalized ads that will garner the most capital. 76% of U.S. retailers are using Facebook, while 50% use Twitter, and 14% MySpace and YouTube. Ten percent will use all of the previously mentioned.

FIGURE 4

Personalization and targeted demographic audiences are key and Facebook users provide all the information that is needed to accurately send a personalized target advertisement (Figure 4): Location: including city, state, and country; sex; age; education status: high school, college, and college graduate; workplace; relationship status: single, in a relationship, engaged, or married; and finally perhaps the most important: keywords. Keywords are taken from the ‘Interests’ section of a ‘Profile’ and words such as “movies” will allow businesses like Blockbuster or Netflix to send their advertisements to the right user who will most likely be attracted to the particular ad. Advertisements consist of a Title, a Body, and a Photo only, once again sticking to the columnar, uncomplicated layout scheme. To have an advertisement on Facebook, the creator must figure out how he or she wants to pay for it. There are two options, CPC (cost-per-click) or CPM (cost-per-thousand impressions or number of times an ad will be displayed). There is a minimum amount of money an advertiser will have to pay plus a bidding session to see if the ad will be displayed, if the bid is low, the ad will never show on Facebook. This is Facebook being as efficient as possible with their information in order to make the most money. A good example of the extent of this selling of information is Best Buy’s “Hint Helper”. A nifty program that dropped hints of what the user wanted for the holidays on the user’s friends and family’s profiles through cookies, or trackers. This form of advertising facilitated through users with know-how and a first-rate webpage layout is the non-traditional new advertising that comes with social networking websites, and the future of advertisement through personalization.